Topic 1: Principles of Environmental Education
1.1 Concepts and principles of
environmental education
1.2 History and philosophy of
environmental education
1.3 Approaches in environmental
education
1.4 Acquisition of
environmental knowledge.
Topic 2: The Environment and its challenges.
2.1 Physical and cultural
components of the environment
2.2 Population, resources and
environmental challenges
Topic 3: Human Behavior, Culture and the
Environment.
3.1Factors influencing human behavior towards the environment
3.2
The role of education awareness, attitude, motivation, and commitment to
improve
Environmental quality
3.3
Changing detrimental environmental behaviors
Topic 4: Skills and Expertise in Environmental
Management
4.1
Methods in environmental education
4.2
Environmental conservation skills (Use reduction, re-use, recycling)
4.3
Waste management skills
4.4
Energy saving technology.
Topic 5: The role of Environmental Education in
Sustainable development
Case studies.
Basic Readings:
Boyce, J.K (2002). The Political Economy of
Environment, Edward Elgal, Chelternham, U.K
Hackle, J and A. Martin (2001). Environments in a
Changing World, Prentice Hall.
Otiende ,J.E (1991). Environmental Education,
African Books Collection, Oxford.
Palmer, J and P Neal (1994). The Handbook of
Environmental Education, Routledge London.
Simmons, D (1998). ” Reflections on
Environmental Education :Promise and Performance”Canadian Journal of
Environmental Education, 3, Spring 1998, pp 41-47, p 44.
QUESTIONS FOR GROUP PRESENTATION
QUESTION 1: Discuss the 12 principles of
Environmental Education (VIP& Hugo Tchaves groups)
QUESTION 2: Discuss the status of
Environmental Education in O level secondary schools in Tanzania (Mwalimu
Nyerere & Israel groups)
QUESTION 3: Trace back the history and
philosophy of Environmental Education (Revolution& stunners groups)
QUESTION 4: Discuss the concept of
environmentalism (Talentious / Talented group)
QUESTION 5: Criticize the deep ecology theory
(Maendeleo & Charity groups)
QUESTION 6: Comment on the Gaia hypothesis
/theory/principle (The great together & golden groups)
QUESTION 7: Discuss the approaches of
Environmental Education (New Revolution& vision groups)
QUESTION 8: Taking the Northern Gulf of Mexico/
the Deepwater Horizon oil well split (On 20 April 2010) as an example, explain
the concept that ‘’ An event can cause the changes to occur in one or more of
the spheres and or an event can be the effect of changes in one or more of the
earth’s four sphere’’ (Africa & super Ego)
QUESTION 9: Describe each of Earth's four
spheres. List several examples of
features in each sphere (Anoint & Bravo groups)
QUESTION 10: Do you think clouds should be
classified as part of the atmosphere, or part of the hydrosphere? Explain why (Victoria
& cooperation groups)
QUESTION 11: Human behavior towards environment
can be influenced by a number of behaviors. Discuss how age, emotions, prompt
and affordance can influence the environment (Unity group &Optimists)
GROUP QUESTION 12
Prepare a field trip study to take the whole
class in any industry in Mwanza. A trip which will let the students to
understand the nature & sources of raw materials used in production
processes, working conditions and safety of its employees disposal of
wastes & location of factory in relation to natural and social environment.(HG
unity academic & galaxy groups)
QUESTION 13: Prepare a 20 minutes lesson
using a role play method on any topic on environmental education to the form
two classes (Rivals group & universal groups)
QUESTION 14: Discuss the Bio-degradable
Municipal waste; (BMW) as one of the waste categories (Mathematician&
better plan groups)
QUSTION 15: Discuss recycling technique as the
method of environmental conservational skill (Geographers and philosophers
group)
GE 145: INTRODUCTION TO
ENVIROMNENTAL EDUCATION (notes)
Topic 1: Principles of Environmental Education
·
Concepts and principles of environmental education
·
History and philosophy of environmental education
·
Approaches in environmental education
·
Acquisition of environmental knowledge.
1:1Concepts and principles of environmental
education
v -General meaning of
environmental education
v -Background of
environmental education
Environmental education
Is a process by which people develop awareness,
concern and knowledge of the environment and learn to use this understanding to
preserve, conserve and utilize the environment in a sustainable manner for the
benefit of present and future generations.
• Background of environmental education
-Man has been inseparable part of the
environment ever since; even the appearance of man on earth itself was an
outcome of the environmental processes.
-Limited need of primitive man did not disturb
the harmony of nature since the amount to damage the environment were
insignificant.
Later on the population growth and its various
need plus advancement in technology accelerates environmental degradation.
Some of the ways that caused this degradation
can be summarized as follows;
Farming, cutting down trees for timber firewood
and overgrazing.
Man has deforestated vast areas without
replacing the trees and grasses with similar vegetation cover or
maintaining the similar soil fertility of the area.
• Excessive use of artificial fertilizers,
pesticides and weed killers.
Most of these are toxic, persistent in nature
and are not selective as a result they affect the natural cycles and find
their way into food and water from soil.
• Industrial activities
a) The wastes from industries
are released into atmosphere as gases, same are dumped on land or in water as
either solid or liquid.
b) Raw materials for
industries particularly the mineral mining in many areas have left the
abandoned mining sides unsuitable for vegetation growth and has been turned
into wastelands.
• Growth of urban settlements
-The content of urban sewages is discharged into
streams and rivers polluting the water.
-Clearing the land for buildings and cutting
down trees for buildings and furniture.
-A lot of domestic wastes are dumped on land and
water
• Various means of transport
-Consume various sources of energy as coal,
diesel, and petroleum in large quantity.
-Emit different gases which pollute the
environment example carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and lead.
-Cutting down large number of trees for
construction of roads and railways.
All these have lead to present day environmental
crises. Environmental degradation if not checked in time will endanger the
existence of human being itself.
There is need for environmental education so as
to have citizens who concerned for saving the environment from more
destruction.
When people became knowledgeable about their
environment and associated problems will be aware of the solutions to those
problems too.
Education has always played a crucial role in
society because it provides necessary skills and helps in forming certain
attitudes. The environmental education is there to fulfill this role.
Environment education should help in solving
environmental problems in our normal lives. As we depend on environment to
live, to get our daily needs and development we have in turn to take care of
the environment for it to continue to sustain us.
Take care of the environment for the environment
to take care of you.
‘’Tunza mazingira ili mazingira yakutunze’’
CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL
EDUCATION.
- Definition
of Environmental Education (EE) according to UNESCO
-Goals, specific objectives and principles of EE
according to UNESCO.
1:2 History and philosophy of
environmental education
ü According
to UNESCO Conference done in Tbilisi Georgia;
Environmental education is
defined as a process aimed at developing the world population that is aware and
concerned about the total environment and its associated problems and which
have the knowledge, attitudes, motivations, commitments and skills to work
individually and to work collectively towards solutions of current problems and
preventing the new ones (UNESCO, Tbilisi Declaration, 1978).
ü Goals
of Environmental Education
According to UNESCO
(United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization) Tbilisi
Declaration, there are 3 goals of Environmental Education.
·
To foster clear awareness of, and
concern about, social, political and economic interdependence at local,
regional, national and international/global levels.
·
To provide every person with
opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes, commitment and
skills needed to protect and improve the environment;
·
To develop and reinforce new patterns of
environmentally sensitive behavior among individuals, groups and society as a
whole for a sustainable environment.
ü Specific
objectives of Environmental Education
The above goals were
better defined by 5 objectives which were outlined in UNESCO-UNEP(United
Nations Environment Program) Environmental Education Newsletter Vol.1, No1
(January 1996). These objectives are to improve: awareness, knowledge,
attitudes, skill and participation.
1.
Awareness - to help social groups and individuals
acquire awareness and sensitivity towards: " the environment as a whole,
and; " issues, questions and problems related to environment and
development.
2.
Knowledge to help individuals, groups and
societies gain a variety of experience in, and acquire a basic understanding of
what is required to create and maintain a sustainable environment.
3.
Attitudes - to help individuals, groups and
societies acquire: " a set of values and feelings of concern for the
environment, and " the motivation to actively participate in protection of
the environment.
4.
Skills - help individuals, groups and
societies acquire the skills for: " identifying, " anticipating,
" preventing and " solving environmental problems.
5.
Participation - to provide individuals, groups and
societies with an opportunity and the motivation to be actively involved at all
levels in creating a sustainable environment.
QUESTION:
Discuss the goals and specific objectives of
Environmental Education.
1.2 HISTORY AND
PHILOSOPHY OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION.
The roots of environmental education can be traced back as early
as the 18th century when Jean-Jacques Rousseau stressed the importance
of an education that focuses on the environment in Emile: or, in Education
• Several decades later, Louis Agassiz, a
Swiss-born naturalist, echoed Rousseau’s philosophy as he encouraged students
to “Study nature, not books.”
• These two influential scholars helped to lay the
foundation for a concrete environmental education program, known as Nature
study, in the late 19th century and early 20th century.
Later on a new type of environmental education, Conservation
Education emerged, as a result of the Great Depression and Dust Bowl during
the 1920s and 1930s.
• Great
Depression = a period during the
1930s when there was a worldwide economic depression and mass unemployment.
• Dust
Bowl = an area where
vegetation has been lost and soil eroded, esp. as a consequence of drought or
unsuitable farming practice.
• The
Dust Bowl, or the Dirty Thirties, was a period of severe dust storms causing major ecological and
agricultural damage to American and Canadian prairie lands in the 1930s,
particularly in 1934 and 1936. The phenomenon was caused by severe drought
combined with farming methods that did not include crop rotation, fallow
fields, cover crops, soil terracing and wind-breaking trees to prevent wind
erosion
• Conservation Education dealt with the natural world in a drastically
different way from Nature Study because it focused on rigorous scientific
training rather than natural history. Conservation Education was a major
scientific management and planning tool that helped solve social, economic, and
environmental problems during this time period
• The modern environmental education movement, which
gained significant momentum in the late 1960s and early 1970s, stems from
Nature Study and Conservation Education. How?
HISTORY AND
PHILOSOPHY OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
The modern environmental education movement stems from Nature Study and
Conservation Education. (Late 1960s and early 1970s).
In late 1960s and early 1970s many events such as Civil
Rights, the Vietnam War, and the Cold War – placed Americans at odds with one
another and the U.S. government.
Many people began to fear the fallout (cloud of radioactive dust that
is created by a nuclear explosion and settles back down to the ground) from
bombs and other radiations, the chemical pesticides, and the significant
amounts of air pollution and waste.
The public’s concern for their health and the health of their
natural environment led to a unifying phenomenon known as environmentalism.
The United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) and United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) created three major
declarations that have guided the course of environmental education.
• Stockholm
Declaration (Sweden) June 5–16, 1972
Internationally, Environmental Education gained recognition in this UN
conference.
- It
was UN Conference on the Human Environment.
- It
declared environmental education must be used as a tool to address global
environmental problems.
The document was made up of 7 proclamations and 26 principles "to
inspire and guide the peoples of the world in the preservation and enhancement
of the human environment."
• The
Belgrade Charter - October 13–22, 1975.
It was the outcome of the International Workshop on Environmental
Education held in Belgrade, Serbia.
Was built upon the Stockholm Declaration and adds goals, objectives,
and guiding principles of environmental education programs
- It defines an audience for environmental education, which includes
the general public.
• The
Tbilisi Declaration (Georgia/USSR) October 14–26, 1977
- Noted
the important role of environmental education in the preservation and
improvement of the world's environment, as well as in the sound and balanced
development of the world's communities.
- The
Tbilisi Declaration updated and clarified The Stockholm Declaration and The
Belgrade Charter by including new goals, objectives, characteristics, and
guiding principles of environmental education.
Other conferences are
like
-
1980- International Union for conservation of nature
and Wild Life Fund. Insisted on resources conservation and sustainable
development.
-
1987- by UNESCO & UNEP in Moscow. Insisted the importance of EE.
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Rio
de Janeiro(Brazil) 3-14 June 1992 (Informal name =The Earth Summit). This
summit focused on three broad concepts:
1. An "Earth Charter" covering a number of
principles aiming at development and the protection of the environment.
2. "Agenda 21" was intended to be a global
action plan for sustainable development in the 21 century.
3. Developing countries demanded a substantial
increase in new funding from developed countries to contribute to sustainable
development
They reached on several conventions covering
• Climate Change. It acknowledged on the
threat of global warming.
• Biological Diversity (Conservation of the
world biodiversity)
• Forest (Sustainable forest management)
One implication of the Rio de Jane conference in EE is the
recommendation that, environment and education should be incorporated as an
essential part of learning. (Within both formal and informal sector)
For
geography teachers/ environmentalists
•
EE should be a lifelong process that a person acquires from childhood
till death.
•
EE is not restricted to in-class lesson plans. There are numerous ways
children can learn about the environment in which they live. From experiential
lessons in the school yard and field trips to national parks, to after-school
green clubs and school wide sustainability projects.
•
Can have the environmental week/day in your school
•
EE should be a part and parcel of any subject in the schools as to be
done from curriculum developers and policy makers.
•
The environment is a topic which is readily and easily accessible
QUESTION 2: Discuss the status of Environmental Education in O level
secondary schools in Tanzania.
Environmentalism
Ø Original/
history
Ø Meaning
Ø Supporters
Ø Criticism
History/origin of
environmentalism
A concern for environmental protection has occurred in diverse forms,
in different parts of the world, throughout history. Example origin of
Environmentalism in US. (In previous lecture)
In late 1960s and early 1970s many events such
as Civil Rights, the Vietnam War, and the Cold War – placed Americans at odds
with one another and the U.S. government.
Many people began to fear the fallout
from bombs and other radiations, the chemical pesticides , and
the significant amounts of air pollution and waste.
The public’s concern for their health and the health of their
natural environment led to a unifying phenomenon known as environmentalism.
MEANING OF
ENVIRONMENTALISM
Environmentalism is a broad philosophy, ideology and social
movement regarding concerns for environmental conservation and improvement of
the health of the environment, Gipson (2003).
Environmentalism is a movement to control pollution
(Merriam-website 2012-06-20).
For this reason, concepts such as a land ethic, environmental
ethics, biodiversity, and ecology are predominant.
Environmentalism is a social movement that seeks to influence the
political process by lobbying/influencing, activism, and education in order to
protect natural resources and ecosystems.
SUPPORTERS OF
ENVIRONMENTALISM
Free market environmentalism
Is a theory that argues that the free market, property rights, and tort
law provide the best tools to preserve the health and sustainability of the
environment? It considers environment to be in its natural way as a property
right of every one, as well as the expulsion of polluters and other aggressors
through individual and class action.
For markets to work in the environmental field, as in any other,
each important resource must be clearly defined easily defended
against invasion , and divestible (transferable) by owners on terms
agreeable to buyer and seller. Well-functioning markets, in short, require
“3-D” property rights.
When the first two are present—clear definition and easy defense of
one’s rights—no one is forced to accept pollution beyond the standard
acceptable to the community.
Evangelical
environmentalism
• It has focus of addressing climate action from a
biblically grounded or theological perspective.
• Argues that human-induced climate change will have
severe consequences and impact the poor.
• God's mandate to Adam to care for the Garden of
Eden.
• It is therefore a moral obligation to work to
mitigate climate impacts and support communities in adapting to change.
Preservation
and conservation (Conservation movement)
Is viewed as the setting aside of natural resources to prevent damage
caused by contact with humans or by certain human activities, such as logging,
mining, hunting, and fishing, often to replace them with new human activities
such as tourism and recreation.
Regulations and laws may be enacted for the preservation of
natural resources.
As environmental concern grew, so did distrust of business
institutions, which were seen to be the cause of environmental problems such as
air and water pollution. Governments worldwide responded with new forms of
comprehensive environmental legislation aimed at regulating and constraining
environmentally damaging business activities.
CRITICISM OF ENVIRONMENTALISM
Environmentalists typically believe that human interference with
'nature' should be restricted or minimized as a matter of urgency (for the sake
of life, or the planet, or just for the benefit of the human species). Both
environmental skeptics and anti-environmentalists do not believe that there is
such a need.
Environmental skepticism
• Is the belief that claims by environmentalists, and
the environmental scientists who support them, are false or exaggerated.
• Environmental skeptics have argued that the extent
of harm coming from human activities is less certain than some scientists and
scientific bodies claim (Environmentalists).
• One of the focus themes in the environmental
skeptics movement is the idea that environmentalism is a growing threat to
social and economic progress and the civil liberties.
• The popularity of the term was enhanced by Bjørn
Lomborg's book The Skeptical Environmentalist (2004).( Statistician
economist)
• He summarized his position, saying
"Global warming is real - it is man-made and it is an important problem.
But it is not the end of the world."
• They argue that it is too soon to be introducing
complains in human economic (Industrial) activities on the basis of existing
evidence, or that further discussion is needed regarding who should pay for
such environmental initiatives.(Escapism)
Anti-environmentalists/Green Backlash,
• On the other hand, accept many of the claims made
by environmentalists while simultaneously accepting that change is inevitable
(impossible to avoid or to prevent from happening) regardless of cause and
speed.
• They do not deny the impact of humanity, but they
dispute/disagree the argument that humanity can kill the planet, citing life's
several billion year history as evidence that it is more resilient than many
environmentalists realize.
• Anti-environmentalism has been a response to the
rise of environmental consciousness and awareness first in the late 1960s and
early 1970. It is a backlash against the success of environmentalists in
raising public concern and pressuring governments to protect the environment.
Discuss the concept of environmentalism. Comment on the statement that
“Both views environmentalism and anti-environmentalism are wrong”
APPROACHES TO ENVIRONMENTALISM
There are two approaches/philosophical thoughts which Environmentalists
illuminate to environmental improvement and means to achieve it. These are
shallow and deep ecology
Shallow ecology
a) This view is completely self / human centered view.
Shallow ecology wants to save the world, but only for us.
Examples;
It wants us to preserve the rainforests so our children can enjoy
them or because we need the oxygen from the trees. Save the ecosystems, but
only if they are of value to us. Some day we might want or need them.
Shallow ecology participates in that myth which puts man as a king the
world, somebody who needs to conquer and master the environment.
b) It looks on the outcomes of the environmental problems rather than
the cause and find the solutions basing on these outcomes. Examples;
-landfills are problems, so let’s recycle instead,
-depending on oil is a problem so let’s drive electric cars
instead.
- buy energy saving light bulbs; don't use plastic bags, plant trees,
the list goes on.
None of these programs questions the fundamental beliefs of our
culture and how our society is operating.
No environmentalist can prevent destruction if a culture believes the
world belongs to him/her by right.
c) Shallow ecology consider human and nature are different and that
human dominate the world around them.
- It does not consider the interaction between living and non living
world to let the earth as an ecosystem to function well.
Deep ecology.
Deep Ecology is about changing minds. Every action is the result of a
prior thought. Change a mind, you change the outcome.
It involves culture, human societies, individuals,
and values, life styles to emphasize respect and cooperation with nature.
It looks to non-humans for advice on how to participate in an
ecosystem without destroying it and seeks to implement that advice by the
modification of culture.
Deep ecology argues that the natural world is made up of complex
inter-relationships in which the existence of organisms is dependent on the
existence of others within ecosystems. Example
- Animals depend on plants to get their food, plants depend on animals
to make their food through the photosynthesis, and plants again depend on
micro-organisms to get minerals / decomposition. Micro- organisms depend on
plants and animals to get their food.
Human interference with or destruction of the natural world lead to a
threat not only to humans but to all organisms constituting the natural order.
Deep ecology's core principle is the belief that the living environment
as a whole should be respected and regarded as having certain legal rights to
live and flourish.
It describes itself as "deep" because it regards itself
as looking more deeply into the actual reality of humanity's relationship with
the natural world.
In contrast to the shallow ecology which is concerned with conservation
of the environment only for exploitation by and for human purposes; deep
ecology takes a more holistic view of the world human beings live in and seeks
to understand the non human parts of the earth ecosystem.
Deep ecology is a part of green movement/environmentalism movement and
it supports the Gaia hypothesis/theory (By James Lovelock 1960s) which
states that;
“The earth is like single super living organism in which
living organisms interact with the non living organisms to form a
self-regulating, complex system”
The system includes the near-surface rocks and atmosphere. In
particular, it regulates the chemistry of the oceans, composition of the
atmosphere and surface temperature comfortable for living organisms.
Temperature:
there has been a 25% increase in heat from the sun since life began but
surface temperature has remained approximately constant.
Atmosphere:
the present highly unstable mixture of reactive gases (79% nitrogen,
20.7% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide with traces of methane and other gases)
could not be maintained without constant replacement or removal by the biota
Ocean salinity:
has been maintained at about 3.4% for billions of years. Cells cannot
tolerate salt concentrations much above 5%. Salinity is at least partly
controlled by evaporate beds/lagoons where marine life causes limestone
deposits, later buried.
CRITICISMS OF THE
GAIA PRINCIPLE
1. The notion of self regulating earth sounds as if it believes with a
sense of purpose; would require foresight and planning.
2. The theory does not recognize crucial intermediate positions like
volcanic eruption which can lead to same landscapes to disappear and others to
be formed.
• However despite of the above criticism the Gaia
principle has an important place in the history of the development of
environmental awareness as it suggests that;
• The abiotic and biotic environment are made up of
many complex interrelationships;
• Many of these complex interrelationships are quite
delicate and may be altered by human activity to a breaking point; and
• The theory suggests that humans must learn to
respect Gaia by reducing their intentional modification of the Earth's abiotic
and biotic components.
GROUP QUESTION:
Criticize the deep
ecology theory.
TOPIC 2: THE ENVIRONMENT AND ITS CHALLENGES
2.1. Physical and cultural components of the
environment
2.2. Population, resources and
environmental challenges
2.1 PHYSICAL AND CULTURAL COMPONENTS OF THE
ENVIRONMENT.
Everything in Earth's system can be placed into
one of four major subsystems: land, water, living things, or air. These four
subsystems are called "spheres." Specifically, they are the
-Lithosphere (land),
-Hydrosphere (water),
-Biosphere (living things),
-Atmosphere (air)
There is a continued interaction between biotic
(the living part of the earth) and the abiotic (Non living part of the earth)
components. This interaction involves the transport/transfer or transformation
of elements, compounds and also various energy forms.
Interaction of physical
components of the environment of the earth.
Atmosphere
Biosphere
Lithosphere
Hydrosphere
The diagram above represents the four physical
components of the environment and their relationships. If one component or
linkage changes all other components respond.
In this conceptual framework every sphere has a
two way linkage to every other sphere including itself. The two way linkage
signifies that matter may flow from one component to another in both
directions. Same arrows show the transfer within a given component from one
location to another indicating movement of substance from one physical location
to another without leaving the sphere.
The atmosphere (Air)
It may be considered as a transport component
that moves substances from atmospheric sources to receptors. Its storage for
matters is small compared to other spheres but it has an immense capability for
spatial re-distribution of matter. The atmosphere contains all the air in Earth's system. It extends
from less than 1 m below the planet's surface to more than 10,000 km above the
planet's surface. The upper portion of the atmosphere protects the organisms of
the biosphere from the sun's ultraviolet radiation. It also absorbs and emits
heat. When air temperature in the lower portion of this sphere changes, weather
occurs. As air in the lower atmosphere is heated or cooled, it moves around the
planet. The atmosphere is made up of many layers that differ in chemical
composition and temperature.
The Lithosphere (Land)
It is the outer part boundary layer of the
solid earth and discontinued within the mantle. The outer boundary forms the
complex interface with the atmosphere and hydrosphere and also the environment
in which life evolved. Interaction between the Cristal systems of lithosphere
and atmosphere and the biosphere take place where continental crust is exposed
to inputs of solar radiant energy, precipitation and atmospheric gases. These
inputs are often modified by or operate through the effect of living systems of
the biosphere. Under the influence of these inputs crustal rocks are broken
down by weathering processes and are transferred to fine porous crustal layer
called soil.
Within the soil biochemical reactions by micro
organisms are responsible for most of chemical changes of matter. However, soil
and rocks are the storage components for deposited matters.
The Hydrosphere (Water)
The hydrosphere contains all the solid, liquid,
and gaseous water of the planet .It includes the surface water and its
surrounding. It is vital for life molecules to survive. Water possesses a
number of chemical and physical properties that help the molecule to act as the
best suitable medium for life activities. The movement of water from the earth
(Lithosphere) to atmosphere through hydrological cycle appears to be a closed
system. The ocean cover approximately 71% of the planet, glacier& ice
caps cover additional areas and water is also found in the lakes, streams, in
the soil and under the ground as ground water, in the atmosphere as water vapor
and in the of living organisms eg in human being. Living organisms use water
for different purposes in one way or another. They use all available water
sources- inland waters, ground water and even ocean water.
The Biosphere (Living things)
The biosphere contains all the planet's
living things. This sphere includes all of the microorganisms, plants, and
animals of Earth. Within the biosphere, living things form ecological
communities based on the physical surroundings of an area. Encompasses all
zones of the earth where life is present. At the top of the lithosphere,
throughout the hydrosphere there is life and into the lower atmosphere life of
different forms/diversity exist. Life on earth requires water, a source of
energy (sun light) and various nutrients that are found in the soil, water and
air.
Biosphere occupies the least volume of all the
spheres but it is the cause of the majority of flow of matter through nature.
Weathering through the hydrological cycle, blowing wind and volcanic eruptions
are some of mobilizing agents. The biosphere is responsible for the ground
scale recycling of energy and matter on earth. Mobilization of matter by biota
is by means restricted to small geographic regions. The period of burning of
forest for example not only changes the chemical form of matter but also result
in long rang of atmospheric transportation of matter and deposition.
Same of the biological released chemicals
include the CO2 , Nitrogen and sulphur have long atmospheric
residence resulting in continental and global scale redistribution. Change in
one sphere often results in changes in one or more of other spheres as have
been stated above. Such changes which take place in the spheres are referred to
as events can occur naturally such as earth quake, forest fire, hurricanes. Sometimes
they can be caused by human such as oil split, air pollution, deforestation,
forest fire etc.
An event can cause the changes to occur in one
or more of the spheres and or an event can be the effect of changes in one or
more of the earth’s four sphere.
QUESTION: 6 Taking the Northern Gulf of
Mexico/ the Deepwater Horizon oil well split (On 20 April 2010) as an example,
explain the concept that ‘’ An event can cause the changes to occur in one or
more of the spheres and or an event can be the effect of changes in one or more
of the earth’s four sphere’’
QUESTION 7: Describe each of Earth's four
spheres. List several examples of features in each sphere.
QUESTION 8: Do you think clouds should be
classified as part of the atmosphere, or part of the hydrosphere? Explain why
Understanding the interactions among earth’s
surface and the events that occur within the ecosystem allows predicting the
outcomes of events. Be able to predict outcomes are useful for preparedness.
The following are the examples of interaction of different earth’ spheres Humans (biosphere) built a
·
Human (Biosphere) build a dam out of rock materials (geosphere).
·
Water in the lake (hydrosphere) seeps into the cliff walls behind the
dam, becoming groundwater (geosphere), or evaporating into the air
(atmosphere).
·
Humans (biosphere) harness energy from the water (hydrosphere) by having
it spin turbines (geosphere the turbines come from metal ores in the ground) to
produce electricity.
Man& the Biosphere.
Humans are part of biosphere & human
activities closely resemble to the functioning of the biosphere at large. Human
& biota are responsible for redistribution of chemicals on earth. Fires and
other forms of combustion result in an oxidation of both biogenic and
anthropogenic elements. In nature living plants tend to reduce their
metabolized chemicals thus consuming a cycle of chemicals that living matter
are made of.
The human induced oxidation products have to
cycle on biota for reduction and recycling. Given the limited reduction capacity
of the biosphere many of the combustion products remain in stable form and are
ultimately deposited in another long term geo-chemical reservoirs to another.
Much of the environment damage is done in the
atmosphere during the transition from one long term geo-chemical reservoir to
another.
2.2 POPULATION RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL
CHALLENGES
The human race is consuming more than the world
natural resources can support and also than rate of world to renew its natural
resources. It is estimated that the amount of world’s natural resources that
the entire human race is using has exceeded the worlds renewable by about 25%.
Natural resources are under increasing pressure,
threatening public health & development, soil erosion, loss of forest, air
and water pollution, degradation of coast lines, affecting in many areas. As
the world population grows improving living standard without destroying
environment is a global challenge.
In the past decade, in every environmental
sector conditions have either failed to improve or they are worsening.
(i)Public
health:
Unclean water, along with poor sanitation, kills
over 12 million people each year, most in developing countries. Air pollution
kills nearly 3 million more. Heavy metals and other contaminants also cause widespread
health problems.
(ii) Food supply:
Will there be enough food to go around? In 64 of
105 developing countries studied by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization,
the population has been growing faster than food supplies. Population pressures
have degraded some 2 billion hectares of arable land — an area the size of
Canada and the U.S.
(iii)
Freshwater:
The supply of freshwater is finite, but demand
is soaring as population grows and uses per capita rises. By 2025, when world
population is projected to be 8 billion, 48 countries containing 3 billion
people will face shortages. Example over 250 million people- half of the
Sub-Saharan Africa’s population have no access to safe drinking water and
300 mill lack adequate sanitation. It is estimated that 500mil Africans are
likely to be without safe water and sanitation by the year 2020 given the
current rate of population growth.
(iv)
Coastlines and oceans:
Half of all coastal ecosystems are pressured by
high population densities and urban development. A tide of pollution is rising
in the world’s seas. Ocean fisheries are being overexploited, and fish catches
are down. Example 29% of species have globally been fished so heavily or have
been affected by pollution that they are down to 10% of their previous
population levels.Globaly the market value of the marine and coastal resources
and industries is estimated to be 3USD trillion per year or about 5% of global
GDP and estimated of 65% of global ecosystems services are provided by marine
and coastal systems. As much as 40% of world oceans are considered as heavy
affected by human activities including pollution, depleted fisheries, loss of
coastal habitants such as coral reefs, mangroves and sea grasses and bi-
aquatic invasive species.
A way forward: Integrated ecosystem based
management of fresh water and ocean resources through promoting effective
governance are needed.
(v)
Forests:
Nearly half of the world’s original forest cover
has been lost, and each year another 16 million hectares are cut, bulldozed, or
burned. Forests provide over US$400 billion to the world economy annually and
are vital to maintaining healthy ecosystems. Yet, current demand for forest
products may exceed the limit of sustainable consumption by 25%. In Tanzania
for example according to FAO (2009) deforestation rate was estimated at 412,000
hectors per annual between 1990-2005.This is equivalent to 1.1% of the country
total forest area. Causes of deforestation are said to be clearing for
agriculture overgrazing. In central Tanzania and North West, for example wild
fires, charcoal making, persistent reliance on wood fuel for energy, lack of
land use plans and non- adherence to existing wants. These are immediate causes
of deforestation. But population growth, gvnt policy, market failure and
ownership rights are underline causes i.e. they are not realized immediately.
Also lack of proper right and affluence
(vi) Biodiversity (2/3 of the world’s species are in
decline).
The earth’s biological diversity is crucial to
the continued vitality of agriculture and medicine — and perhaps even to life
on earth itself. Yet human activities are pushing many thousands of plant and
animal species into extinction. Two of every three species is estimated to be
in decline.
Increasing pressure of human population
exploitation, pollution and climate change have already pushed some ecosystems
over critical thresholds. Other ecosystems are edging closer to thresholds
beyond which a return to stable conclusions could be difficult – if not
impossible e.g. according to the IUCN (International UNION for Conservation of
Natural 2009)shows that 17,291 out of 47,677 assessed are under threat
globally. This includes 21% of all known mammals, 30% of all 28% of all known
reptiles, 37% of fresh water fishes, 70% of plants, 35% of invertebrates.
.
INDIRECT CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION.
a) Market
failure
This lead to entire market sources fail to
reflect the environmental value of a particular resource. Example may see many
bags of charcoal in town, the direct implications you get is that there is a
lot of forest to cut charcoal, while the reality is not the case. Also the
market forces provide a strong incentive for short term profit making instead
of long term sustainability. Example cutting dawn trees for charcoal.
b)Government
policy
The essence of any policy is to correct problems
that affect the society. If these policies are effective we will have less
environmental problems. If the government policy fails to be effective and
efficient we have government policy failure.
c) Rapid
population growth
Population growth is an important source of
development and also is a major source of environmental degradation when it
exceeds the threshold life of the life support systems. Population impacts on
the environment primarily through the use of natural resources and production
of wastes, and these associated with environmental stresses like loss of
biodiversity, air and water pollution and increased pressure on arable land.
d)
Poverty
Is said to be both cause &effect of
environmental degradation. The circular link between poverty
& environment is extremely complex phenomenon. Inequality may foster
unsustainably because the poor who rely on natural resources more than the rich
deplete natural resources faster as they have no real prospect of gaining
access to other types of resources. More over degraded environment can
accelerate the process of impoverishment again because the poor depend directly
on natural resources are the cries to suffer more.
e) Lack
of property rights over natural resources.
Without legal rights of ownership &benefit
sharing mechanisms among individuals on natural resources use may lead to
environmental degradation. Common property ownership is refuted to
degradation of natural resources.
f)Affluent
It is the way of life in rich countries which
involves consumption of huge volumes of resources and quince queenly it
involves dumping vast amount of wastes into the environment e.g. to provide US
life style to one person about 80 tons of materials have to be processed every
year. Much of which mining waste. Energy equal to 7 tons of oil that has to be
used. Also for each kg of food eaten some 10 kg of soil are lost at least 4.5
hectares of productive land are needed just to provide one person living a rich
world city with their food, water , living space and energy. In other worlds
the high mass consumption is far beyond sustainable per capital levels of
resources use and environmental impact.
The solution to this is to have an
ecologically sustainable society in which have materially simple life styles of
highly self sufficient local economy which is not driven by profit motive and
market forces.
g) Global
climate change.
The earths surface is warming due to green house
gas emission largely from burning fossil fuels of particular concerning
are the implication of melting ice for sea level rise the significance of ocean
acidification for Marine ecosystems and the risks to global agriculture and
water supply posses by the expanding tropical belt. e.g. the years 2000
to 2009 constitute the warmest decade since instrument records for global
temperatures were established in the mid 19th .2009 was the warmest
year with the cluster of other years ie.1998,2002,2003,&2007.This is
according to Institute of space study (2009).
**The UN has developed another approach REDD
(Reducing Emission from Deforestation and forest Degradation).
REDD is an approach in mitigation global climate
change by reducing levels of green house gas emission.
REDD is an innovative payment schemes for
ecosystem services. Roughly 25% of terrestrial carbon is stored in forests. REDD
assigns a monetary to standing forest in developing countries paying land
owner for protecting the forests inset creel of cutting down.
TOPIC 3: HUMAN BEHAVIOUR CULTURE AND THE
ENVIRONMENT
1.3 Factors influencing human behavior towards the environment.
3.2 The role of education awareness,
attitude, motivation, and commitment to
improve
Environmental quality.
3.3 Changing detrimental environmental behaviors
1.3 FACTORS
INFLUENCING HUMAN BEHAVIOR TOWARDS THE ENVIRONMENT.
• Definition of behavior
• Relationship between behavior and environment
• Factors influencing human behavior to wards
the environment.
By free encyclopedia (2005) human behavior can be defined to be
collection of activities performed by human being as influenced by cultural,
attitudes, emotions, values, authority, rapport, persuasion& coercion
Relationship between behavior and environment
One of the behavioral change theories is social learning (social
cognitive theory) ‘’An individual's behavior may change their environment but
the environment can change the human behavior as well as the way the individual
thinks or feels''. They believe in reciprocal relationship between individual
behavior and environment.
The question here is how best we can influence human behavior to more
environmentally sound?
- Responding to this question requires a full understanding of the
nature of human behavior, how human behavior shapes the environment & what
are the determinants of human behavior.
Changing human behavior and preserving natural resources are among the
greatest challenges to the sustainable development for the world today.
Bushfire
Cutting down the trees
Overfishing
sport hunting /Illegal hunting
Improper garbage disposal
Mining leftovers
Fumes from the factory
Dumping of industrial waste products into water sources
FACTORS INFLUENCING HUMAN BEHAVIOR TOWARDS
ENVIRONMENT
Education, reinforcement, defaults (Alternatives or solutions) prompt
(reminder),income (poverty), beliefs, environmental stress (emotions), environmental
legislation, age, and responsibility
• GROUP
QUESTION;
Discuss how the following factors can affect human behavior towards
environment; age, laws and regulations, environmental stress and/or emotions, responsibility,
beliefs, and poverty.
1. EDUCATION
.
- By educating and improving the problem based knowledge one can change
environmental attitude and increase feeling of stress of people towards
environment.
-These changes in turn improve preparedness to act friendly with the
environment.
2. REINFORCEMENT.
Reinforcement Theory of Motivation by BF Skinner. It states that
“Individual’s behavior is a function of its consequences”. It is based on “law
of effect”, i.e, individual’s behavior with positive consequences tends to be
repeated, but individual’s behavior with negative consequences tends not to be
repeated.
Positive
Reinforcement
This implies giving a positive response when an individual shows
positive and required behavior. For example - Immediately praising a student
who has planted a tree in a school compound. This will increase probability of
outstanding/planting trees behavior occurring again.
Negative
Reinforcement- This
implies rewarding a person by removing negative / undesirable consequences. Eg
after planting trees then villagers can be allowed to get firewood from once
protected area. Both positive and negative reinforcement can be used for
increasing desirable or required behavior.
Punishment means applying undesirable consequence for showing
undesirable behavior. For instance - Suspending a student from a school after
intentionally uprooting the trees planted in the school compound. (www.satlectwowayradios.co.za in Reinforcement Theory of Motivation)
3. DEFAULTS (ALTERNATIVES
OR SOLUTIONS).
-They are used to make desirable behavior easier than non desirable
behavior. When there’s for example no waste bins around, littering is more
likely and the vice versa. When the environment doesn’t allow for
people to properly dispose their litter, people will litter the environment.
When translated into environmental behavior; if pro- environmental
alternatives or salutations are not enabled in a physical or social
environment, people are more likely not to undertake pro- environmental
behavior.
4. PROMPT (REMINDER).
-
Prompts are reminders to people that a particular behavior is necessary or
required.
When waste bins were provided to residents the cleanliness of the area
increased significantly. The research have shown that the cleanliness rate
increased not because of the bins themselves but it was the reminder that the
bins provided
and the social norm that the bins evoked.
Overtime these prompts help specific action to become part of the
social norms leading to the culture of conservation.
5. STRESS/EMOTIONS
Stress is a major concept that plays a major
fundamental role in understanding many forms of human adaptations, Ashford, et
al (2010, p. 33) have pointed out that, stress represents any event in
which environmental demands or bolt tax all exceed the adoptive resources of an
individual social system or tissue system.
Evance, (1982, p. 15) point out that stress is a
process by which environmental events or forces, called stressor threaten an
organism’s existence and well being by which an organism respond to these
threats.
The stress reaction replete with commonly known
symptoms such as fear, acient and anger is only part of this process. It is
probably the most easily recognized, but in many cases it may simply represent
“side effects” of the main attraction perceiving a threat, copying with it and
adapting to it.
Our lives can be characterized as a constant
adaptation to sudden change or gradual evolution of our surroundings. Sometimes
these changes are minor and we can adopt in them without even being aware of
them. At other time, however, these changes can be severe and clearly
threatened.
6. RELIGION/BELIEVES/FAITH
World religion, each in their own way, offer a
unique set of moral values and rules to guide human beings in their
relationship with the environment. Religions also provide sanctions and offer
stiffer penalties such as fear of hell, for those who do not treat god’s creation
with respect. Although it is true that, in the recent past, religions have not
been in the fore-front of protecting the environment from human greed and
exploitation, many are now willing to take up the challenge and help to protect
and conserve environment. For example, while technology gives the individual
the physical power to create or to destroy the world, religion gives the moral
strength to grow in virtue buy nurturing restraint, humility, and liberation
from self centeredness. Directly and indirectly, religion can be a powerful
source for environmental conservation and protection. Thus we need a strategy
for conservation that does not ignore the powerful influence of religion, but
instead draws from all religious foundation and cultures. (Gottlieb, 2004, p.
145)
AGE
7. How age
can influence the environment
Grunnet and Johl , 1995 in
their paper titled ‘’Values, environmental attitude of buying
organic food’’ agreed with other several researchers
suggestion that people’s basic value orientations are important to
the behavior that are related to the environment. Meaning that at early stages
of life, basic knowledge on environmental issues is very important for
determining how a person will be in future.
Johnny Sanvichith (2011) in his paper
titled ‘’Home gardens, Identity and Pro-Environmental Behavior ‘’ found
the strong relationship between age and environmental behavior.
According to him this relationship bases on experience that one has . Young
children have little experience on environmental matters. Youths of are exposed
to new ideas that may inform emerging self-identity, and they generally
demonstrate high levels of pro-environmental attitudes and behavior (Milfont,
Duckitt & Cameron, 2006). This age is also an essential time to learn about
one’s national background, and heritage (Phinney, 1990).At old age one has more
experience on environmental issues than youths therefore will act more friendly
to the environment than children and youths. Someone’s age identity is
influenced by one’s sense of belonging to that age group, (A child, youth or
adult) , and the degree to which this affects one’s thinking, perceptions and
decisions (Phinney, 1996)
•
QUESTION
11:
Human behavior towards environment can be
influenced by a number of behaviors. Discuss how age, emotions, prompt and
affordance can influence the environment.
- Add the following to the list above;
beliefs, poverty and responsibility as individual assignment.
REFERENCES:
Johnny, S. (2011). Home gardens, Identity
and Pro-Environmental Behavior
Among Southeast Asian American. UC Berkeley
Students.
Phinney, J. S. (1990). Ethnic identity in
adolescents and adults: Review of
research. Psychological Bulletin, 108(3), 499-514.
doi:10.103
Phinney, J. S. (1996). Understanding
ethnic diversity. American Behavioral
Scientist, 40(2),
143.
Ashford et al, (2010) Human
behaviour in the social environment: A multi-dimensional perspective 4th
Edition. USA: Cengage Learning Ltd.
Gottlieb, R. S. (2004). This
sacred Earth: Religion, Nature and Environment. London, Britain: Routledge.
Evance,
G. W. (1982). Environmental stress. USA: Cambridge University Press Ltd.
3.2 THE ROLE OF EDUCATION
AWARENESS, ATTITUDE, MOTIVATION, AND COMMITMENT TO IMPROVE
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
Environmental education (EE) refers to organized
efforts to teach/learn about how natural environments function and,
particularly, how human beings can manage their behavior and ecosystems in
order to live sustainably.
The term is often used to imply education within
the school system, from primary to post-secondary
However, it should be used more broadly to
include all efforts to educate the public and other audiences, including print
materials, websites, media campaigns, etc. Related disciplines include outdoor
education and experiential education.
The role of education awareness attitude
motivation and commitments to improve environmental policy (a program of
actions adopted by the government) will be realized
by the EE learning outcomes which
are;
1. To improve awareness and concern about
environmental issues.
2. To develop understanding of ecologically
principals.
3. To stimulate commitments for environmental
problems.
4. To demand action to promote conservation of
natural resources.
3:3 CHANGING DETRIMENTAL ENVIRONMENT BEHAVIORS
Detrimental environment behaviors are the
behaviors that harm our environment. They include burning/cutting trees,
illegal hunting, over fishing, improper garbage disposal, bad methods of
fishing and the like.
The detrimental environmental behavious can
change through;
• Education
- Awareness that the environmental issue in
question is actually or potentially detrimental to the person an health
&welfare
-Enough concern with the hazardous condition to
be motivated to do something about it.
-Knowledge of what one can do about the issue.
-Knowledge of how to carry out this action.
-Ability to carry out this action.
-Belief that one’s action will have a
substantive impact on the environmental condition.
-Assurance that gains from taking the action
will outweigh any sacrifices required.
Responsibility.
-A sense of social responsibility needs to be
instilled so that each person will regard even a minute
contribution to violating the environment or restoring it has been morally
&physically significant.
Environmental
legislation /laws / regulations
-These are used to regulate people behaviors
towards protection & conservation of environment.
Prompts
(reminders)
-The use of posters& other means to remind
people on environmental maintenance.
Reinforcement
Rewards encourage behavior while punishment
discourages behavior.
Affordance
/ Defaults /alternative
solutions.
-Presence of infrastructure to enhance a
particular behavior e.g. distribution to throw rubbish.
Income/poverty.
Low income people are adversary affected by the
social processes and therefore they respond negatively towards nature.
QUIZ NO 2:
Time: 7 minutes.
Time: 7 minutes.
QUESTION:
It is said that low
income people are adversary affected by the social processes and therefore they
respond negatively towards nature. Do you agree or disagree with this
statement? Defend your answer.
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